Definition Links:
Educational Therapy
Educational Therapy offers children and adults with learning disabilities and other learning challenges a wide range of intensive, individualized interventions designed to remediate learning problems.
Educational therapy demystifies learning problems and stimulates clients’ awareness of their strengths so they can use those strengths to best advantage to overcome or compensate for areas of weakness.
Educational therapists create and implement a treatment plan that utilizes information from a variety of sources including the client’s social, emotional, psychoeducational, and neuropsychological context.
For further information on specific referrals for Educational Therapists please consult with Heather McCuskey & Rebecca Barker, Learning Specialists.
Occupational Therapy
Occupational Therapy is a treatment of physical and developmental disorders through purposeful activities that improve and develop skills. OT is beneficial when there are concerns regarding gross motor, fine motor, handwriting, oral motor, sensory processing, visual motor and/or motor planning skills. An OT evaluation assesses these skills and provides recommendations if therapy is needed.
Areas of OT:
• Fine Motor Skills refers to actions of the hands, wrists and arms including dexterity, coordination and strength. Handwriting is often impacted by poor motor coordination (deficits in eye & hand coordination, fine-motor ability and decreased visual perception). Dysgraphia is a common disability that affects writing abilities. It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on paper. Just having bad handwriting doesn't mean a person has dysgraphia. Since dysgraphia is a processing disorder, difficulties can change throughout a lifetime. However since writing is a developmental process -children learns the motor skills needed to write, while learning the thinking skills needed to communicate
on paper - difficulties can also overlap.
• Tactile Processing interprets touch and perception. It protects us from stimuli that may be perceived as harmful. With over or under sensitive tactile system, the body interprets touch differently. When this occurs, due to types of clothing, food textures or unexpected touch, the body releases an excessive emotional reaction. Sensory Integration Dysfunction occurs when a child has difficulty receiving, organizing, and interpreting input, becoming the basis for motor planning, learning and behavior.
• Oral Motor Skills refers to the movement of muscles in the mouth, lips, tongue and jaw.
For further information on specific referrals for Occupational Therapists please consult with Heather McCuskey & Rebecca Barker, Learning Specialists.
Speech and Language
There are three components of speech and language skills: Receptive, Expressive and Pragmatic.
• Receptive Language includes vocabulary, basic concepts, following directions, auditory processing, problem solving & reading comprehension.
• Expressive Language includes vocabulary, grammar, retrieval, sequencing, articulation, phonology and fluency.
• Pragmatic Language includes turn taking, social language, non-verbal language.
An articulation disorder is a common speech and language issue, which involves problems making sounds. Sounds can be substituted, left off, added or changed.
Speech and Language Pathologists (SLP) work with students who have any of these language issues including social skills difficulties. Social skills are a collection of isolated and discrete learned behaviors. Social skills (social competence or social thinking) are user-friendly terms for “social cognition”. Social cognition develops from birth, much like walking; it is intuitively “hard wired” into most people to work at learning how the social world works.
Four typical characteristics include cognitive traits such as certain language processing deficits, severity of a learning disability, gender and hyperactivity.
Students with developmental delays in social skills do not intuitively learn social information the way neurotypical children do. Instead, they have to be cognitively taught how to think socially and understand the use of related social skills.
For further information on specific referrals for Speech and Language Pathologists or Social Skill Group Therapy consult with Heather McCuskey & Rebecca Barker, Learning Specialists.
Binocular Vision
The term “binocular” refers to of or involving both eyes at once. Binocular vision refers to both eyes aiming simultaneously at the same visual target; vision wherein both eyes work together -- simultaneously, equally and accurately -- as a coordinated team. Healthy binocular vision produces important visual perceptual skills, which are part of normal human vision: binocular depth perception and stereopsis. Stereopsis or stereoscopic vision refers to-two separate images when two eyes are successfully combined into one image in the brain. Stereopsis is an aspect of "normal" healthy vision. Here's how it works. First, both eyes must be accurately aimed at the same target (that's binocular vision, but it's not yet stereoscopic vision!) Then, because the two eyes are located in different positions, each takes in a unique
view from its own perspective. The two separate images are sent on to the brain for processing. When the two images arrive simultaneously in the back of the brain they are united into one picture. The combined picture appears three-dimensional (3-D) because it has the added depth dimension. That's stereo vision. Stereo vision gives you depth perception.
A binocular vision impairment is any visual condition wherein binocular visual skills are inadequately developed. A comprehensive eye examination should include the testing of these important binocular visual skills:
• Tracking: the ability to move the eyes across a sheet of paper
• Fusion: the ability to use both eyes together at the same time
• Stereopis: binocular depth perception
• Convergence: the ability of the eyes to move and work as a team
• Visual Motor Integration: the ability to transform images from a vertical to a horizontal plane
Binocular vision impairments often result in partial or total loss of stereoscopic vision and binocular depth perception. Binocular vision impairments are common
Vision Therapy (also known as vision training, eye training, behavioral optometry or orthoptic therapy) can be described as physical therapy for the visual system, which includes the brain and eyes. Through a series of eye exercises individuals develop normal visual skills. Vision therapy is remarkably successful. Vision therapy can improve visual skills such as stereopsis, binocular coordination, binocular fusion, eye teaming skills, convergence, visual acuity, focusing skills, stereoscopic vision, depth perception, eye tracking, fixation skills, visual form discrimination, visual memory, hyperopia, and visual motor integration (balance, body coordination, hand-eye coordination).
Visual System and the Brain: The visual system includes the brain as well as the eyes. The eyes are actual physical extensions of the brain. Some binocular vision disabilities also involve problems with how the brain processes the visual information coming in through the eyes. Vision therapy (or orthoptic therapy) is a very effective type of physical therapy for the brain and the eyes. Children with binocular vision impairments can often learn to see normally by undergoing this type of therapy.
For further information on specific referrals for Pediatric Optometrist specializing in Binocular Vision and Vision Therapy consult with Heather McCuskey & Rebecca Barker, Learning Specialists.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD)
Central auditory processing is a physical hearing impairment, but one which does not show up as a hearing loss on routine screenings or an audiogram. Instead, it affects the hearing system beyond the ear, whose job it is to separate a meaningful message from non-essential background sound and deliver that information with good clarity to the intellectual centers of the brain (the central nervous system). When we receive distorted or incomplete auditory messages we lose one of our most vital links with the world and other people.
Specific auditory processing difficulties exhibited by children with CAPD are as follows:
• Auditory Attention
• Auditory Discrimination
• Auditory Memory
• Auditory Analysis-Synthesis
• Auditory Cohesion
Audiologists diagnose central auditory deficits and peripheral hearing loss. Audiologists make recommendations for therapy based on their diagnoses.
For further information on specific referrals for Audiologists specializing in CAPD consult with Heather McCuskey & Rebecca Barker, Learning Specialists.
Learning Differences (LD)
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a federal law, defines a learning disability as a condition when a child's achievement in some areas is significantly different as compared to his or her overall intelligence.
According IDEA a "Specific Learning Disability" is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.
LD is a broad term. There are many different kinds of learning disabilities. Most often they fall into three broad categories:
• Reading disabilities (often referred to as dyslexia)
• Written language disabilities (often referred to as dysgraphia)
• Math disabilities (often called dyscalculia)
Other related categories include disabilities that affect memory, social skills, and executive functions.
For more information on Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia, visit www.ldonline.org (Learning Disabilities: An Overview)
Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD)
Nonverbal Learning Disability is an impaired ability to organize the visual-spatial field, adapt to new or novel situations, and/or accurately read nonverbal signals and cues. It appears to be the reverse syndrome of dyslexia. Although academic progress is made, such a student will have difficulty "producing" in situations where speed and adaptability are required. Whereas language-based learning disorders have been shown to be genetic in origin, heredity has not, as yet, been linked to NLD. It is known that nonverbal learning disabilities involve the performance processes (generally thought of neurologically as originating in the right cerebral hemisphere of the brain, which specializes in nonverbal processing).
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined as a pattern of behaviors in which a child shows, usually before the age of 7, developmentally inappropriate levels of inattention, impulsivity, or hyperactivity. It is the most common mental health problem of childhood, affecting 3% to 5% of the population. There are three different subtypes of ADHD: Inattentive type, Hyperactive-Impulsive, and combined type:
Symptoms of Inattention:
• Fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes
• Has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
• Does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
• Does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish tasks (not due to oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions)
• Has difficulties organizing tasks and activities
• Avoids or dislikes tasks that require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework)
• Loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., toys, books)
• Is easily distracted
• Is forgetful in daily activities
Symptoms of Hyperactivity:
• Fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
• Leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected
• Runs or climbs excessively when it is inappropriate (in adolescents, may be feelings of restlessness)
• Has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
• Is always "on the go" or acts as if "driven by a motor"
• Often talks excessively
Symptoms of Impulsivity:
• Blurts out answers before questions have been completed
• Has difficulty awaiting turn
• Interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games)
Neuropsychological Evaluations
Definition: Psychoeducational testing refers to the psychological tests used to analyze the mental processes underlying your child’s educational performance.
Preparing your child for testing:
• Reassure your child that the reason for testing is to understand why school is a struggle despite hard work and attempts to do well.
• Explain that the tests will contain a variety of questions, puzzles, drawings, stories and games; and that the tests are not painful.
• Most importantly, offer your child hope in that the evaluation should show adults how best to help.
• Test administrators try to make children comfortable.
• What really matters is that your child do his or her best and not to be discouraged.
• Schedule the test sessions during the time of day when your child usually functions best.
Evaluation Components:
I. Educational
• Reading (Decoding accuracy and speed; Comprehension; Recall)
• Spelling (Accuracy; Error types; Spelling in context)
• Writing (Pencil grip; Graphomotor fluency, rhythm, ease of output; Legibility; Mechanics; Language usage; Ideation; Organization
• Mathematics (Factual recall & degree of proficiency; Procedural recall & degree of proficiency; Understanding concepts; Word problem-solving skills; Visualization/geometric ability)
• General Observations (attention, anxiety, metacognition, enthusiasm, creativity, affinities)
II. Behavioral
• Direct observations, projective tests and interviewing child, determine child’s feelings about school.
• Use of parent, teacher and student questionnaires to elicit patterns of behavior and concerns.
III. Cognitive Development
• Direct intelligence, neuropsychological and or relevant testing to detect strengths and weaknesses.
IV. Environmental
• Interview with parents to elicit relevant factors in the current and past home environment of the child.
• Consideration of cultural, peer-related, and community based issues related to the students’ performance.
V. Medical
• Review of child’s medical history/development to uncover current or previous factors affecting school performance.
For further information on specific professionals for comprehensive evaluations please consult with Heather McCuskey & Rebecca Barker, Learning Specialists.
Assistive Technology
Assistive technology is technology that aids individual’s ability to perform functions that might otherwise be difficult. Assistive technology can include hardware and software’s that assist people with disabilities in accessing computers or other information technologies. For example, children who are Dyslexic may use software that reads text on the screen in a computer-generated voice; children with fine-motor difficulties or Dysgraphia may use a word processor, spell check and software program with word prediction functions; children with binocular vision issues may use software that enlarges screen content; or children with speech impairments may use a device that speaks out loud as they enter text via a keyboard.
The Technology Resource Center of Marin (TRC), in partnership with the Marin County Office of Education has become a model program providing students with special learning needs the best that technology has to offer them to enhance their educational experience. The TRC serves as an open lab for educators, students and their families. The lab is open on Wednesdays from 3-6PM. The TRC also has a lending library of software, technology devices and resource information. Call ahead to schedule an appointment: (415) 491-6494 or http/trc.marinschools.org
Specific Assistive Technology Aids:
Reading & Spelling:
• Read: OutLoud software is a text reader with special study tools that help break barriers to reading fluency and comprehension. Visit: www.donjohnston.com
• Earobics software aids in phonological awareness, auditory processing and phonics skills. It teaches the skills necessary to learn how to speak, read and spell. Visit: www.earobics.com
• Fast ForWord software program develops and strengthens memory, attention, processing rate, and sequencing—the cognitive skills essential for learning and reading success. The strengthening of these skills results in a wide range of improved critical language and reading skills such as phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, decoding, working memory, syntax, grammar, and other skills necessary to learn how to read or to become a better reader. Visit: www.scilearn.com
• WYNN software is an innovative literacy solution designed to enhance success for individuals with reading challenges and writing difficulties. By using the software's bimodal approach – simultaneously highlighting the text as it is spoken – WYNN transforms printed text into understandable information that benefits readers of all ages. Toolbars emphasize file management, visual and auditory presentation of text, traditional study tools, writing aids, and Internet use. Visit: www.freedomscientific.com
• Lindamood-Bell software includes Seeing Stars CD’s for sight word practice & learning affixes & Visualizing & Verbalizing CD for concept imagery ability (reading comprehension). Visit: www.ganderpublishing.com
• Franklin Electronics or talking dictionary and thesaurus aids in spelling skills and improved vocabulary. Visit: www.franklin.com
• Recordings For The Blind & Dyslexic (RFB & D) offers audiobook players and the largest listening library of audio textbooks. Visit: www.rfbd.org
Writing:
• Inspiration software creates graphic organizers to help develop ideas and expand topics. It is a visual learning strategy and provides diagram and outlines. Visit: www.inspiration.com
• Co:Writer software provides contextually-smart word choices that expand a students written vocabulary. It has a flexspell and linguistic word prediction technology. Co: Writer helps students compose grammatically correct sentences containing rich, topic-specific words & produce longer sentences with fewer spelling errors. Visit: www.donjohnston.com
• Write: Outloud is a talking word processor that provides auditory supports so that students can make decisions for editing & revising. It increases writing quantity and improves writing quality. Visit: www.donjohnston.com
• IntelliTalk is a word processor that allows students to combine graphics, text, and speech to build writing and communication skills. Visit: www.intellitools.com
• Draft:Builder software for older students that builds planning, organizing and process-writing strategies. Visit: www.donjohnston.com
Auditory Processing:
• Listening Program is a music–based auditory simulation method that gently trains the auditory system to accurately process sound. Visit: www.thelisteningprogram.com
Typing:
• Read & Write Type software helps children learn to hear the individual sounds in words, and associate each sound with a letter and a fingerstroke on the keyboard. Children use their eyes, ears, mouths, and fingers. This multi-sensory and motor approach stimulates learning and helps children who have different learning styles. Children develop fluency by making thousands of letter-sound (phonics) associations. Children are engaged and motivated by the colorful characters, games, animations, and music. Visit: www.talkingfingers.com
• Type to Learn software teaches 25 animated lessons as students embark on time-travel missions and learn keyboarding skills. Built on a proven typing curriculum of sequential, skills-building instruction with a focus on mastery. Keyboarding lessons are wrapped in an integrated presentation of demonstration, review, practice, and testing called Missions. Visit: www.sunburst.com
• Keyboard Classroom teaches typing skills in fast one-minute sprints, quickly developing speed and accuracy. It's especially effective for a child who has learning differences. Visit: www.keyboardclassroom.com
Math:
• IntelliMathics 3 is an exceptional software tool for manipulating onscreen attribute blocks, tangrams, base ten blocks, geoboards, or fraction pieces. It's also a fabulous environment for manipulating any type of graphic, from bugs to balloons. The software program lets you add sorting bins, counting boxes, and Venn Hoops to your activities and gives verbal and written feedback to students as they make their selections. Visit: www.intellitools.com (Classroom Suite-3 programs in 1)
Cognitive Skills:
• BrainWare Safari is a software program that develops the cognitive skills critical for learning. Using an engaging video-game format, the program helps develop 41 cognitive skills including attention, visual processing, auditory processing, sensory integration, memory and thinking skills. Visit: www.brainwareforyou.com
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